The short version of glutathione fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-06-05. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Glutathione is a tripeptide composed of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. It contains an unusual gamma-glutamyl bond between glutamate and cysteine, which resists cleavage by many peptidases. The reduced form, GSH, carries a thiol group on cysteine and is the dominant intracellular form in most cells. Its structure allows it to participate in redox reactions and to serve as a sulfur donor. The oxidized form, GSSG, consists of two GSH molecules joined by a disulfide bond.
In cells, glutathione helps maintain the reducing environment of the cytosol and supports enzymes that counteract reactive oxygen species. It acts as a cofactor for glutathione peroxidases, which reduce hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides, and for glutathione S-transferases, which conjugate electrophiles. The ratio of GSH to GSSG is often used as an indicator of oxidative stress, although the ratio can vary by compartment and cell type. Glutathione also stores cysteine, an amino acid that can be limiting for protein synthesis and antioxidant defense.
Glutathione is a tripeptide composed of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine. It occurs in nearly all living cells, with highest concentrations in liver, kidney, and red blood cells, and exists in reduced (GSH) and oxidized disulfide (GSSG) forms. The cysteine thiol group enables reversible oxidation and reduction reactions. This property makes glutathione a central participant in cellular redox balance. The balance between these forms is often used as an indicator of oxidative stress.
Glutathione synthesis proceeds in two ATP-dependent steps catalyzed by glutamate-cysteine ligase and glutathione synthetase. The first step joins glutamate and cysteine to form gamma-glutamylcysteine and is generally rate-limiting. The second step adds glycine to complete the tripeptide. Cysteine availability, feedback inhibition by glutathione, and oxidative conditions influence flux through this pathway. The pathway is conserved across many organisms, and degradation by gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and related peptidases recycles amino acids for new synthesis.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula | C10H17N3O6S | For reduced glutathione; the oxidized dimer has two sulfur atoms. |
| Molar mass | 307.32 g/mol | Calculated for the reduced form. |
| Appearance | White to off-white crystalline powder | Typical for solid reagent; solutions are usually colorless. |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Poorly soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, desiccated, protected from light | Limits oxidation, moisture uptake, and degradation. |
=== Pharmacokinetics === The substance is quickly absorbed from the gut with an absolute bioavailability of 79%. It reaches highest blood plasma levels after about an hour; in different individuals the time to reach this level ranges from 0.5 to 3 hours. Food intake has no relevant influence on the drug's pharmacokinetics. 50% of the circulating baricitinib are bound to blood plasma proteins. Less than 10% of the substance is metabolized to four different oxidation products by CYP3A4; the rest is left unchanged. Elimination half-life is 12.5 hours on average. About 75% is eliminated via the urine, and 20% via the faeces.
A university reports on the first study (25 Oct) of the new privacy-intrusion Web tracking technique of "UID smuggling" by the ad industry, which finds it to be prevalent and largely not mitigated by latest protection tools – such as Firefox's tracking protection and uBlock Origin – and contributes to countermeasures. 15 December Astronomers find that a pair of exoplanets orbiting the red dwarf star Kepler-138 are likely to be water worlds. News reports about the development (22 Oct) in China of an edible, plant-based ink derived from food waste, which could be used in 3D printing of scaffolds to reduce the cost of cultured meat. Promising results of therapeutic candidates are reported: phase 2-trialed talquetamab against multiple myeloma (10&15 Dec), a phase 1-trialed HIV vaccine (2 Dec), mice-tested Pillar[6]MaxQ against meth and fentanyl drug overdoses (15 Dec), first approval of a trialed honeybee vaccine against American foulbrood (29 Dec), a mice-tested triple combination therapy against pancreatic cancer of immunotherapy medications undergoing trials as monotherapies (30 Dec). 19 December – A new world record solar cell efficiency for a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell is achieved, with scientists in Germany converting 32.5% of sunlight into electrical energy. 20 December – OpenAI releases Point-E, a machine learning system that can generate 3D models from text prompts (text-to-3D), similar to previously released GET3D and Magic3D by Nvidia and DreamFusion by Google.
=== Other === The notochords in chordates are like the stomochords in hemichordates. Gastrotrichs, despite being in two different superphyla, resemble the kinorhynchids. Elvis taxa in the fossil record developed a similar morphology through convergent evolution. Venomous sting: to inject poison with a hypodermic needle, a sharp pointed tube, has shown up independently 10+ times: jellyfish, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, various insects, cone shell, snakes, some catfish, stingrays, stonefish, the male duckbill platypus, Siphonophorae and stinging nettles plant. Bioluminescence: symbiotic partnerships with light-emitting bacteria developed many times independently in deep-sea fish, jellyfish, fireflies, Rhagophthalmidae, Pyrophorus beetles, pyrosome, Mycena, Omphalotus nidiformis mushrooms, Vargula hilgendorfii, Quantula striata snail, googly-eyed glass squid, stiptic fungus, Noctiluca scintillans, Pyrocystis fusiformis, vargulin, sea pen, ostracod, Siphonophorae and glow worms. Bioluminescence is also produced by some animals directly. Parthenogenesis: Some lizards and insects have independent the capacity for females to produce live young from unfertilized eggs. Some species are entirely female. Several worm phyla have evolved an eversible proboscis, with examples being acanthocephalans, priapulids, kinorhynchs, and some polychaete worms. Extremely halophile archaeal family Halobacteriaceae and the extremely halophilic bacterium Salinibacter ruber both can live in high salt environment.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Chromosome 3 open reading frame 62 (C3orf62) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C3orf62 gene. C3orf62 is a glycine-depleted protein relative to the amount of glycine in proteins in the rest of the genome. C3orf62 has a KKXX-like motif and is predicted to be localized in the nucleus. Expression of C3orf62 remains highest in whole blood.
Spondylosis Spondylarthrosis Cervical and lumbar syndromes Arthrosis of the large joints Obliterating atherosclerosis of the extremity vessels (Peripheral arterial disease) Diabetic angiopathy Thromboangiitis obliterans Raynaud's syndrome Painful reflex muscular spasm, contraction & rigidity Acrocyanosis Tension headache Neuropathic pain
From 2011, new cars should have brake assist system in the EU, according to The Pedestrian Protection Regulation (EC) 78/2009. Starting in 2012, all cars under 10,000 lbs. sold in the US are required to have Electronic Stability Control. In 2014, ESP (Electronic Stability Program) and TPMS became mandatory in the European Union, with also the driver seat belt reminder and the ISOFIX system, under General Safety Regulation (EC) No 661/2009. In 2015, recognizing that safer roads are a shared responsibility, Together for Safer Roads (TSR) was formally launched to align the private sector's road safety efforts with the United Nations Decade of Action for Road Safety. In 2016 and 2017, ABS became mandatory on motorcycles in the EU. In 2018, eCall became mandatory in the EU, and reverse camera in the US. In 2019, the EU legislated to revise the General Safety Regulation (GSR), the revision includes the following automotive safety features:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Acanthaster planci, starfish (2014) Apostichopus japonicus, sea cucumber (2017) Arbacia lixula, black sea urchin (2024) Astropecten irregularis, sand sea star (2024) Australostichopus mollis, Australian sea cucumber (2016) Chiridota hydrothermica, deep sea cucumber (2024) Diadema setosum, Long-spined sea urchin (2024) Echinometra lucunter, rock boring urchin (2023) Ophionereis fasciata, mottled brittlestar (2016) Patiriella regularis, the New Zealand common cushion star (2016) Plazaster borealis, Octopus starfish (2022) Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, a sea urchin and model deuterostome (2006)
Purpura () is a condition of red or purple discolored spots on the skin that do not blanch on applying pressure. The spots are caused by bleeding underneath the skin secondary to platelet disorders, vascular disorders, coagulation disorders, or other causes. They measure 3–10 mm, whereas petechiae measure less than 3 mm, and ecchymoses greater than 1 cm. Purpura is common with typhus and can be present with meningitis caused by meningococci or septicaemia. In particular, meningococcus (Neisseria meningitidis), a Gram-negative diplococcus organism, releases endotoxin when it lyses. Endotoxin activates the Hageman factor (clotting factor XII), which causes disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). The DIC is what appears as a rash on the affected individual.
== Static gas mass spectrometry == A static gas mass spectrometer is one in which a gaseous sample for analysis is fed into the source of the instrument and then left in the source without further supply or pumping throughout the analysis. This method can be used for 'stable isotope' analysis of light gases (as above), but it is particularly used in the isotopic analysis of noble gases (rare or inert gases) for radiometric dating or isotope geochemistry. Important examples are argon–argon dating and helium isotope analysis.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
GSH is the reduced form with a free thiol group, while GSSG is the oxidized disulfide-linked dimer. Most assays distinguish the two because their balance reflects redox conditions. The names are not interchangeable.
It is synthesized in the body from amino acids, so it is not classified as an essential dietary nutrient for most people. Dietary and supplemental forms are studied for their effects on tissue levels and health markers. Evidence varies by population and outcome.
The phrase highlights its high intracellular concentration and its role in several antioxidant and detoxification reactions. It is not the only antioxidant, and the term can oversimplify its functions. Scientific descriptions usually specify the pathway or enzyme involved.
GSH is the reduced thiol form, while GSSG is the disulfide-linked oxidized dimer. The GSH:GSSG ratio is used as a redox indicator, though the ratio can vary with sample handling and cell type.